The team are keen to show us the spectacular mountain environment in which they work, and give us a first-hand impression of some of the challenges it faces and which, with support from GEO Mountains, they are working intensively to better understand.

Having piled our belongings and some scientific equipment onto the top of a large 4×4 vehicle, we descend the steep but smooth streets of the hilltop city of Manizales before embarking on an ascent of nearly 3,000 vertical metres into the mountains. 

Keeping windows open to help us acclimatise to the progressive lack of oxygen, we bump for several hours up dirt roads; first through extensive coffee plantations clinging to the clement lower hillsides, then into the rich Andean forest zone – replete with an enormous glistening waterfall – before eventually emerging in the distinctive high-elevation páramo ecosystem. 

As we enter Los Nevados National Park and arrive at our simple mountain refuge for the night, the oncoming evening and swirling mist prevents us from catching a glimpse of what lies even further above. 

The following morning dawns cold but bright, and we are now able to clearly see the features which have long drawn many visitors to the region: two spectacular volcanic peaks, atop of which sit small, brilliantly white ice caps – true rarities at such latitudes!  

As we transition from four-wheeled to two-legged transport, we learn from our colleagues that these glaciers are amongst Colombia’s last remaining tropical glaciers. They explain that while at one time the national park’s name, which translates roughly as “the snowy lands”, was extremely appropriate, the survival of these glaciers is imperilled by pronounced long-term climate warming, as well as apparent shifts in the frequency and intensity of El Niño events (the warm phase of El Niño – Southern Oscillation phenomenon), which bring hot and dry conditions to the region. For example, one of the ice caps – the Nevado Santa Isabel – is expected to disappear completely in the coming years.  

Having now passed from the páramo into the superpáramo zone, our hike culminates at a small mountain lake which is situated at approximately 4,500 metres above sea level – a little below the rocky and icy summit of Santa Isabel. 

There, over lunch, our driver Alejandro explains how he, his colleagues, and others, who are employed in or help protect the national park, including guides and rangers, are becoming concerned that the disappearance of the snow and ice may significantly reduce its attractiveness to tourists, for whom seeing or even hiking to the glaciers is a truly memorable experience, thereby threatening their livelihoods. Half joking, Alejandro mentioned that some people are even wondering whether it would be necessary to change the park’s name!

Professors Gutiérrez and Ángel then draw our attention to a wider concern: that drying of the traditionally humid peatlands of the páramos could threaten several highly specialised species of vegetation – perhaps the most emblematic being those belonging to the Espeletia genus. Given the strong interactions and feedback mechanisms between water, vegetation, soils, and carbon cycling in such systems, even small initial shifts could have major consequences for ecosystem integrity and services such as downstream water provision.

During our descent, first on foot and then by vehicle, we stop periodically and find well-concealed digital climate sensors installed by the researchers, some as long ago as 2008. At these sites, high-frequency climate measurements are downloaded, and batteries and other equipment are replaced as necessary. 

The 28 sensor locations that together comprise the Poleka Kasue Mountain Observatory span a vertical elevational gradient of almost 3,000 m. Concerningly, analysis of these long-term records has already found strong evidence that the fastest warming is occurring at higher elevations, where the remaining glaciers are located. The team has also been able to quantify temperature deviations from longer-term trends associated with El Niño. Furthermore, the detailed “on the ground” observations revealed some deficiencies in more general, so-called gridded climate data products, which must generally be relied upon in mountains in the absence of specific station measurements. This enhanced understanding of the ongoing change processes will be crucial to develop effective adaptation solutions and inform other environmental management decisions. 

Although the world’s mountain regions are extremely diverse, the vast majority are experiencing the same fundamental change as Los Nevados – generally warming temperatures, and in many cases shifting precipitation patterns. GEO Mountains works on a global basis to enhance the availability and uptake of a wide range of mountain data and information. From our work to date, we have a much better appreciation of the outstanding challenges – for example specifically where (or in which respects) station coverage and data sharing are insufficient – as well as proven solutions, such as investing in the entire “data lifecycle” (including station maintenance and human capacities). In some cases, collaboration between groups conducting monitoring for research and staff working for national monitoring agencies could also be enhanced.

The outlook for the glaciers of Los Nevados appears bleak. However, thanks to improved mountain data and the scientific research it supports, there are clear ways forward for adaptation in the face of the now largely inevitable impacts of climate change. More locally, but equally hopefully, the research team, Alejandro, and all his colleagues working in this unique setting hope that despite additional pressures, such as upward agricultural and livestock expansion, the wonders of the enlarged páramo ecosystem will be appreciated by many future visitors!

This story was originally published on the GEO Mountains website on 10 February 2025. It was developed during a workshop for the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) run by the National Geographic Storytellers’ Collective and supported by Geoscience Australia and the Australian Government.

Affability and Avalanche Risk in Almaty

We embarked on our first trip, to Almaty, Kazakhstan, in April 2023. Following intensive but productive presentations and discussions at our workshop venue, all eagerly anticipated an afternoon trip to the nearby Tuyuksu Observatory. The observatory is located in the Ile-Alatau National Park, and is a one of five sites comprising the recently inaugurated Central Asia Mountain Observatories Network (CAMON). 

Given the high avalanche risk following recent snowfall, the authorities unfortunately prohibited us from proceeding into the high mountains. We therefore had to content ourselves with a gentle stroll up the road, necks stretched at the steepness and beauty of the surrounding topography. Our hosts pointed out various monitoring instruments and infrastructure – in some cases still under construction – that seek to mitigate the downstream risk of debris flows. Still, travelling back into the city that afternoon, we couldn’t help but feel that the full capabilities of our vehicle had been somewhat underutilised… 

Our subsequent gala dinner was lubricated in the customary fashion. 

A Heatwave and Hospitality in Kutaisi

Our next engagement, the Caucasus Mountain Forum in July 2023, brought us to the ancient – and at that time of year also rather hot – city of Kutaisi, Georgia. Following a few days’ work, sustained by the country’s famous food, wine, and hospitality, many colleagues attended an organised field trip to Svaneti, in the north-west of the country. Alas, other commitments required us to return to Switzerland, causing us to miss that adventure, although we understand an excellent time was had by all. We have already begun preparing eloquent toasts in anticipation of our next visit!  

Ecosystems and “Excitement” in East Africa

October 2023 arrived, and with it the opportunity to spend more time in the mountains – firstly in Rwanda, following a workshop we hosted at the WCRP Open Science Conference. During this trip and subsequently in Nepal, more of the risks and challenges associated with living and travelling in mountain environments would reveal themselves. 

Western regions of Rwanda were still recovering from devastating floods and landslides which had occurred in May. Furthermore, our route to Nyungwe Forest National Park – one of the few remaining areas of montane forest in the entire country – was littered with trucks which, being overburdened or poorly maintained, had overturned or otherwise lost power on the sinuous mountain roads. On one occasion, a collision was only narrowly averted. 

Once in the park itself, we embarked on a circular hike, which took in several waterfalls and a number of majestic trees. During the hike, our guide imparted his considerable knowledge on various topics. Topics included the native flora and fauna, traditional community uses of forest resources, and issues regarding poaching, mining, and deforestation – which are thankfully now mostly in the past. He also discussed the park’s ongoing efforts to conserve and enhance the ecosystem and protect its biodiversity, whilst simultaneously providing good livelihoods for local people through their employment as tour guides and in hospitality.  

Our impromptu biodiversity and ecosystems field course was enriched by further by the expert contributions of MRI Science Leadership Council Member Prof. Rob Marchant, who also eagerly took on the role of official group photographer. Besides hiking, visiting chimpanzee groups and tackling a canopy walkway are the major attractions, and the number of tourists – who provide crucial income – is steadily growing. 

Despite the optimism, the clear absence of mature trees in many areas and, most affectingly, the display in the visitor centre of the skull of the park’s very last elephant – which was killed by poachers as recently as 1999 – underscored humanity’s pervasive potential for environmental destruction. 

Hiking and Seismic Upheaval in the Himalayas 

It was then directly on to Kathmandu, Nepal, where we arrived in early November 2023 to spend several days hosting a workshop with our partners from ICIMOD. On 3 November, following an evening exploring Kathmandu’s hectic streets, we experienced some moderate seismic shaking in our hotel rooms. A Google search merely a few minutes later informed us that a moderate-sized earthquake had struck the west of the country (a nice example of technology being effectively applied to assist disaster response). We were saddened to learn later that the earthquake had claimed the lives of over 150 people in a remote community.

A short weekend hiking tour in the hills around Kathmandu was embarked upon, the highlight of which was undoubtably stumbling across the enchanting Prakriti Resort and Organic Farm, which made a very welcoming stop in an intense rainstorm after a long hike, and presented an inspiring concept of eco-tourism! Later, in Chisapani, we discovered the remains of buildings destroyed during the major earthquake of 2015, which affected the entire country, once again demonstrating the significant impact of these events on the landscape and communities.

But that was merely a warm-up for Alex, who spent the next two weeks visiting the country. Before setting off to the mountains, she spent a few more days in Kathmandu, during one of the country’s most important religious festivals: the Tihar. The crowded city suddenly comes to a halt and concerts take place every evening in the street, in parallel to religious celebrations within families.

On the Mardi Himal hike, the beauty of the mountains was accentuated by the authenticity of the path, less crowded than other well-known treks. From steep paths through cultivated fields, to forest that stretches up to 3,000 m, the breathtaking viewpoints of Machapuchare (6,993 m) and Anapurna Dashkin (7,219 m) we reached. As we ascended, we gradually felt the effects of the altitude, experiencing a shortage of oxygen. It was amazing to observe the communities acclimatized to these conditions. The country has not only stunning scenery, but also a rich culture and architecture, which we were lucky to discover in some of the mountain villages less affected by earthquakes on the way back to Kathmandu. 

And Finally, Amusement and Ablation in the Andes

Our series of visits culminated in February 2024, when we were honoured to be invited to join colleagues from EIA University on a weekend field visit to the Poleka Kasué mountain observatory in the central Colombian Andes. The observatory hosts a transect of monitoring stations which span an elevational gradient of some 3,000 m, the upper portions of which lie within Los Nevados National Park. Here, as in Rwanda and Nepal, we remarked upon how strictly controlled and regulated access to the national park is.  

Thanks to the pragmatic placement of many of the 28 sensors within reach of the dirt access road, the fieldwork (downloading data from the loggers and replacing them as necessary) was not unduly onerous. Our hosts did however impress upon us how lucky we were, since several of their sensors are only accessible by multi-hour hikes! 

A particular highlight of the trip was observing the sharp transitions between ecosystem zones as we climbed to above 4,500 m, learning about the fascinating plant–water–soil interactions that occur in the Páramo zone, and enjoying the beautiful – if apparently unseasonal – weather conditions. 

Yet again a tinge of unease was felt by all. The Santa Isabel glacier is now on the verge of disappearance. When the time comes, which will surely be in the next years, despite the Páramo zone also being spatially limited, beautiful, and intriguing, there is real concern that the attractiveness of the park to tourists will be significantly diminished without its eponymous snow and ice. Some even are wondering whether the name of the national park, which can be translated into English as “the snow-capped mountains”, should be changed! 

The group’s latest data show a clear acceleration of warming at higher elevations. As such, the warm and dry conditions prior to and during our visit associated with El Niño, which induced conspicuous declines in groundwater levels and wetland functioning, may portend the future. 

Connected Reflections: Insights from the Regions

In closing, considering all the visits, a few points stood out to us in particular: 

• The vast majority of people we met living and working in mountains settings displayed genuine passion and commitment to their regions
• The beauty and awe of mountain environments is ubiquitous, yet a wide range of hazards and risks lurk, and frequently manifest themselves
• In some regions, it appears that access to certain mountain areas, such as national parks, is becoming more restricted. For instance, new regulations that only permit access with a guide are entering force across much of Nepal. This is undoubtedly a well-intended measure designed to support local livelihoods and increase the engagement of local communities in environmental protection
• Mountain tourism more broadly thus has a key role to place in pathways towards more sustainable mountain development, and seems to be a high priority in many of the regions we visited
• Yet there are often inevitable, even inherent tensions between tourism activities (and associated livelihood provision) on the one hand, and ecosystem protection on the other, implying a need for extremely prudent, nuanced, and evidence-based operations and management strategies.

Finally, it cannot be overlooked that such a series of workshops inevitably comes with a hefty environmental footprint. As such, it is imperative that the various ideas and initiatives discussed and developed at the workshops, and in the field (where applicable), are followed through in order to bring about real positive impacts for mountain people and ecosystems under high and increasing pressures. 

We are extremely grateful to all partners involved in organising the regional workshop series for welcoming us to their cities, countries, and mountains. We look forward to continued engagements and collaborative work during the second phase of Adaptation at Altitude!  

Cover image: Alex and James with the team from EIA University at high elevation in Los Nevados National Park. All other images provided by James Thornton and Alex Massot. 

Background and History

Established 35 years ago by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the IPCC has delivered six Assessment Reports. The core objective is to provide policymakers worldwide with comprehensive updates on the physical science basis of climate change, impacts, and potential responses¹. The latest report (AR6) underscores how human activities are responsible for the changes in the Earth’s climate system and calls for urgent actions to reduce greenhouse emissions.

IPCC reports, crafted by thousands of global contributors, are one of the most valuable documents on climate change for policymakers and society. This underscores the critical need for effective climate change communication, particularly in vulnerable regions, as an essential component for prompt action in adapting to climate change and reducing greenhouse emissions.

Climate Change Perceptions in Latin America

Central and South America have shown increasing warming trends, leading to extreme climatic events and negatively impacting the region by worsening the problems of poverty, health, water access, and food. Inadequate governance, particularly in low-income countries, heightens vulnerability to climate change risk in the region^₃. Moreover, climate change perceptions, ranging from 42% to 87% across 18 Latin American countries⁴, impact climate change actions. Despite 35 years since the IPCC’s inception, a substantial portion of the population does not believe that climate change exists in Latin America. Effective climate change communication is crucial in the region to raise awareness about climate change and its impacts, fostering urgent actions for climate change adaptation.

How can climate change communication be improved in Central and South America, given the diversity in environmental landscapes, society, and cultures⁵? I believe that the inclusion of high social diversity is essential for effective climate change communication and driving meaningful action.

To date, the IPCC calendar has carried out 57 events to spread the latest report (AR6), with only six events dedicated to Central and South America. While there have been positive steps to include civilians and society members, there is a pressing need for increased efforts to engage the diverse society more fully. In this context, involving society means active participation, encouraging individuals to raise their voices in the events, and facilitating their participation in information dissemination.

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) through the Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE) also highlights the importance of empowering all members of society to engage in climate action, through education, training, public awareness, public participation, public access to information, and international cooperation on these issues6.

Social Diversity Inclusion: Activists and Organizations

In Central and South America, the inclusion of the society and its diversity is complex but essential. Initiatives should target those members already taking powerful actions for social change, such as environmental and human rights activists, environmental organizations, and local and indigenous communities. Additionally, the inclusion of social diversity demands changes in language and visual communication for effective climate change communication.

Just as Greta Thunberg has had a strong impact on society worldwide⁷, activist groups and youth movements can enhance climate change communication in Central and South America. Unfortunately, many activists face risks⁹, creating an image that activism is dangerous. This may be why such groups are not included in IPCC outreach events in Latin America. However, I believe that the inclusion of these movements is key to improving climate change communication. Based on previous training on the IPCC process, activists could properly spread climate change information as they already might be aware of the importance of the IPCC as a core base for governments to take climate change action⁸. Their inclusion can not only facilitate dialogue among activists, governments, and the private sector but also represent the voices of many cultures and minority groups, e.g., local communities, indigenous people, ethnic minorities, youth, LGBTIQ, and women. This inclusion is an opportunity to enrich social diversity in Central and South America.

Organizations with members from various scientific, cultural, and disciplinary backgrounds can also play a crucial role in disseminating IPCC information. For instance, the Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD)¹⁰ of UNESCO is currently composed of 9,695 members worldwide and about 1,829 members from Central and South America that might support IPCC outreach and public awareness on climate change in the region. As a volunteer and OWSD member, I’ve shared IPCC information on mountains, water, and climate change to inspire care for freshwater ecosystems. These activities highlight the broader societal and environmental impact of scientific contributions. My outreach activities were very rewarding experiences as they made me feel useful for the benefit of society and the environment, reminding me that the science I produce serves not only to fill a scientific knowledge gap but also to contribute to minimizing our current environmental crisis.

Visual Communication and Language Adaptation

Climate change communication is challenging ¹¹, especially when incorporating social diversity. Adapting climate science information to different audiences is important¹². For instance, local and indigenous communities may perceive climate changes differently^13,14, emphasizing the importance of bridging local perceptions with scientific information for effective communication.

Language adaptation, such as switching from English to Spanish in IPCC outreach for Central and Latin America, is positive, but efforts are needed for other native languages due to the region’s numerous indigenous languages. Collaborative efforts are needed by civil society, local organizations, activism movements, and governments. Additionally, IPPC information must be tailored to non-scientific audiences, showcasing relevant cases on climate change impacts in South and Central America and involving directly affected individuals (Figure 1).

While IPCC report authors must maintain scientific accuracy, presenting figures with complexity requires specialists for interpretation¹⁵. Communicating figures regarding predictions and uncertainties is very important for public trust^,17. Therefore, efforts should extend beyond authors, with policymakers and/or those working closely with them needing basic training in figure interpretation and science dissemination. Given that IPCC authors volunteer their time¹⁵, expecting them to handle all the communication efforts alone is unrealistic.

Forging a Path Ahead: A Call for Comprehensive IPCC Outreach

To conclude, I strongly believe that IPCC outreach in Central and South America must consider the region’s social diversity and inherent complexity. Engaging additional social groups and enhancing visual and language elements are vital for disseminating climate change information and bolstering climate action. This also calls for active societal participation to share and spread climate change information, fostering heightened social awareness. IPCC reports are the result of tireless efforts of thousands of authors and expert reviewers. Similarly, achieving impactful IPCC outreach requires an equivalent level of dedication, supported by active social participation.

References

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). https://www.ipcc.ch/about/.
2. Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L., Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K., & Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (Cambridge University Press).
3. H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A., Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel, on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S., & Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.). IPCC, 2022: Summary for Policymakers.
4. Azócar, G. et al. Climate change perception, vulnerability, and readiness: inter-country variability and emerging patterns in Latin America. J Environ Stud Sci 11, 23–36 (2021).
5. Sieder, R. Multiculturalism in Latin America. Indigenous Rights, Diversity and Democracy. Institute of Latin American Studies (2002). Palgrave Macmillan London. London, UK. Pp 280.
6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2020). What is action for climate empowerment? https://unfccc.int/topics/education-youth/the-big-picture/what-is-action-for-climate-empowerment
7. Lee, K., Gjersoe, N., O’Neill, S. & Barnett, J. Youth perceptions of climate change: A narrative synthesis. WIREs Climate Change 11, 1-24 (2020).
8. Eide, E. & Kunelius, R. Voices of a generation the communicative power of youth activism. Climatic Change 169, 6 (2021).
9. Birss, M. Criminalizing Environmental Activism. NACLA Report on the Americas 49, 315–322 (2017).
10. Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World-OWSD (2022). https://owsd.net/.
11. Schäfer, M. S. & Painter, J. Climate journalism in a changing media ecosystem: Assessing the production of climate change-related news around the world. WIREs Climate Change 12, e675 (2021).
12. Howarth, C. Persons, L. & Thew, H. Effectively Communicating Climate Science beyond Academia: Harnessing the Heterogeneity of Climate Knowledge. One Earth. 2, 320-324 (2020).
13. Lizarralde, G. et al. Does climate change cause disasters? How citizens, academics, and leaders explain climate-related risk and disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 58, 102173 (2021).
14. Forero, E. L., Hernández, Y. T. & Zafra, C. A. Percepción latinoamericana de cambio climático: metodologías, herramientas y estrategias de adaptación en comunidades locales. Una revisión. Revista U.D.C.A Actualidad & Divulgación Científica 17, 73–85 (2014).
15. Harold, J., Lorenzoni, I., Shipley, T. F. & Coventry, K. R. Communication of IPCC visuals: IPCC authors’ views and assessments of visual complexity. Climatic Change 158, 255–270 (2020).
16. Molina, T. & Abadal, E. The Evolution of Communicating the Uncertainty of Climate Change to Policymakers: A Study of IPCC Synthesis Reports. Sustainability 13, 2466 (2021).
17. Howe, L. C., MacInnis, B., Krosnick, J. A., Markowitz, E. M. & Socolow, R. Acknowledging uncertainty impacts public acceptance of climate scientists’ predictions. Nature Climate Change. 9, 863–867 (2019).

Citation

Quenta-Herrera, E. (2023). Enhancing Climate Action in Central and South America: The Role of Social Diversity in IPCC Outreach. Mountain Research Initiative – MRI Mountains Blog. https://www.mountainresearchinitiative.org/news-content/enhancing-climate-action-in-central-and-south-america-the-role-of-social-diversity-in-ipcc-outreach

Cover image by Estefanía Quenta

Switzerland is known as Europe’s water reservoir – a reliable supplier of fresh water that flows steadily from Alpine sources, even when it is scarce elsewhere. This image is now being severely threatened by climate change. Extreme events such as floods and droughts are becoming more frequent, thereby exacerbating water stress.

The last few years have illustrated impressively how rarely hydrological conditions have been just right or normal. On the contrary, we have had to struggle with either too little water as a result of too little snow in winter and too little rain in summer, or with too much water in the form of heavy precipitation and floods.

Winters With Little Snow Favor Dry Summers

Droughts and floods are becoming more frequent and more intense with climate change. Both extremes have increased in the Alpine region. There are several reasons for this: warmer temperatures lead to more irregular precipitation, greater evapotranspiration and a lot less snow. Snow is important because it stores water and releases it gradually when it melts. This means that a lack of snow in winter can contribute to a drought in the following summer, because of the absence of meltwater.

Projections indicate that droughts are likely to intensify further. This is not only a problem in summer, when there is a lack of water for irrigation in agriculture and when low water levels lead to shipping restrictions on rivers. It is also a problem in winter, when there is little water available for hydropower production and when snow- free mountains endanger ski tourism.

Major Floods Will Become Even More Severe in the Future

Observations of floods do not provide a clear picture yet: in some areas, increasingly heavy precipitation is leading to more intense events, while in others less or earlier snowmelt is cushioning the impact of more intense precipitation. However, projections indicate that severe floods will become more frequent and more severe in the future, leading to rising damage and management costs.

In short: the future of Europe’s water reservoir looks anything but rosy.

So What Can We Do?

For me, it is clear that we need to adapt to the new water risks. The good thing is that we can do this, as Switzerland already has experience in dealing with extreme events. There is a warning platform for floods, and one for drought is planned for 2025. Moreover, we have the necessary means and the technical knowledge to implement protective measures.

However, if we want to be best prepared for the future, we need to work much harder and address the issue of adaptation more broadly.

First, to mitigate drought, we should not only store water but also save it. Thinking about new storage options such as reservoirs or irrigation ponds makes perfect sense, but building new water storage facilities is not always the best solution because these are expensive and rarely ecologically sustainable.

In my opinion, measures against drought must therefore always address demand as well. Here we have a lot of leverage: by being moderate in our consumption of water and wasting less of it (keywords: washing our cars) and irrigating our fields and gardens more efficiently, we can considerably reduce the amount of water we use.

Second, there is no getting around thinking about flood protection in broader terms than merely structural measures. Restored streams and rivers that take up more space can help reactivate natural flood protection.

Finally, I think it is indispensable that we think of flood protection and drought measures in combination. A full reservoir against drought is of no use if a flood is imminent and storage space is urgently needed for the floodwater.

It Is in Our Control

One thought that is particularly close to my heart: although dealing with an increasing number of extreme events will not be a walk in the park, we are not powerless in the face of climate change. We can adapt. We also do have some control over the extent of the increase in extreme events. The more we reduce our CO2 emissions, the weaker this increase will be. Every decision and action counts, and it is not too late to act in terms of emissions and adaptation.

This article was first published on the ETH News website. View the original article here.

Cover image by Florian Müller

Navigating the Impacts of Climate Change

And so I started working on a book about the ecological effects of climate change in the tropical Andes—my scientific focus over the last decade—that would blend compelling scientific findings with personal memoirs. My objective was to share my first-hand experience with the accelerating impacts of climate change in tropical mountains, the effects caused by rising temperatures, melting glaciers, and changing precipitation patterns. In the field, I have observed the wide-ranging impacts these changes are having on ecosystems—the shifts in plant and animal populations, and the increased risk of natural disasters.

Working with South American researchers and students in the natural outdoor laboratory of the Andes, we investigated how insects, plants, and vertebrates are coping with altered temperatures and water availability. To better understand how nature here will face the challenges created by rapidly warming conditions, we measured the physical environment using the latest technologies, collected and surveyed biological communities in remote places, conducted lab and field experiments, worked with local communities, and developed tools and models to analyze the data. In its early stage, this book was distantly inspired by the geographer and polymath Alexander von Humboldt, who spent five years exploring the forests and mountains of tropical South America where he observed the interconnectedness of mountain ecosystems and their vulnerability to environmental changes.

Humboldt’s Legacy: A 250th Anniversary Celebration

Then came 2019, the 250th anniversary of Humboldt’s birth (he was born in 1769), and an explosion of international publications and events paying tribute to him. While venerated in his time, Humboldt’s holistic approach, combining science, the humanities, and the arts—the rational and the sensory—had been lost over the twentieth century. The issues of the twenty-first century brought it back into fashion, and for this 250th anniversary hundreds of symposiums, special issues, books, articles, new editions, and translations of his works appeared, many of which argued that Humboldt’s worldview would help achieve better science and a more sustainable future. Laura Dassow Wall, who wrote The Passage to Cosmos: Alexander von Humboldt and the Shaping of America in 2009, arguing for Humboldt’s modern importance, seemed to see her wish fulfilled.

Challenges in Humboldtian Discourse: Exploring Practical Application

But there was something that bothered me in all this buzz around Humboldt: these contributions preached for Humboldt’s model, but none really explained how to put it into practice. Does Humboldt have a place in science today? If so, how? How can we learn from his writings and philosophy to do better science, to get a broader understanding of the world, and to protect the Earth? I could not find these answers in what I read or heard about Humboldt. Yet, all my years working on the impacts of climate change in the tropical Andes had given me a sort of “universal” perspective not unlike his that I felt would be worth sharing. So rather than a distant mentor, Humboldt became a major protagonist in this book. While the focus is on the effects of climate change on mountains, the story weaves in anecdotes that illuminate Humboldt’s approach to science, which I believe is crucial to tackling the challenges we face today.

Reviving Humboldt: A Scientist’s Perspective on Methodology

As a practicing scientist, for me “reviving Humboldt” is not about celebrating his memory as a historical figure, but about a careful reading of his texts, his extensive footnotes, his complex drawings and figures, his endless data tables; it is about drawing links from his expeditions and records to contemporary studies; it is about embracing his way of thinking by not being restricted to an academic silo but integrating different disciplines in science, the arts, and humanities; it is about merging the rational and the sensory, logic and the imagination, the textual and the visual. Above all, it is a way of perceiving the world in which everything is connected: people, disciplines, places, and historical eras. I hope that this book contributes to “reviving Humboldt” in this sense.

Read the book

Citation

Dangles, O. (2023). Climate Change on Mountains: Reviving Humboldt’s Approach to Science. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39528-4

Cover image: The páramo of Mt Antisana with Mt Cotopaxi in the background. Above 3500 m in the Ecuadorian Andes, the green carpeted hills of the páramo punctuated by icy summits are a naturalist’s paradise, both rich in endemic species and one of the most scenic places on Earth. Photo by Olivier Dangles.

Mountains, home to about 1.1 billion people, attract people from all over the world for many reasons, including natural beauty, climate, biodiversity, local cultures, resource accessibility, and transportation options, to name a few. This year, it has been estimated that the mountain and snow tourism market will reach around $4.9 billion. By 2033, it is predicted to grow to $8 billion. If data suggests there will be an increase in visitor numbers to mountain regions in the future, without the vital information, local communities and policymakers may be unable to adapt and implement effective tourism development policies.

According to the FAO report, there is a “lack of comparable, updated, and standardised data on mountain tourism at [the] national or local level.” To understand and estimate the share of mountain tourism in international and domestic tourism worldwide, a methodological approach was developed for the purpose of the report. However, due to limited data on domestic tourism, only a representative assessment could be conducted on international tourism. So, if the issue is that the data that is available is not standardised, it might not be able to be used for research purposes. Whilst available data can serve research purposes, its absence could hinder local communities and policymakers in adapting to an anticipated increase in visitor numbers to mountain regions.

Why Mountain Tourism Research is Important

Public and private tourism service providers can use tourist data for planning and development. Financial institutions, insurance companies, and banks can also track spending on travel and tourism. Tourism organisations and tour operators use the data for planning and pricing, and can use insights from the data to anticipate demand, which could be used to counter overtourism. Data on tourists’ travel intentions can also be used to forecast future tourist numbers and expenditures. Furthermore, government institutions use tourism data for funding, tourism development initiatives, and infrastructure planning.

Pursuing Enhanced Data Collection and Recommendations

At the Third Caucasus Mountain Forum in Georgia, some recommendations to stakeholders were put forward by the UNWTO in their presentation on building a new future for mountains, such as:

• Advancing data and evidence-based tourism policies in order to maximise the impact of tourism on employment and to ensure social sustainability;
• Invest in statistical systems that are in line with the International Recommendations of Tourism Statistics;
• Explore the use of mobile positioning data to enhance measurement
• Enhance market intelligence in order to attract new segments, and to better understand consumer trends, as well as embrace the digitalisation of the sector;
• Identify the most important mountain destinations and support the creation of specific mountain observatories.

There are also calls for joint work to help raise awareness of the socio-economic importance of mountain tourism. These recommendations include public and private stakeholders across the tourism value chain to improve data collection, standardisation, and delivery to gain a much more comprehensive assessment of mountain tourism volume and impacts. Other recommendations include the advancement of data and evidence-based tourism policies and strategies; the exploration of mobile positioning data; and raising more awareness of the importance of mountain tourism.

Looking Toward a Resilient Future

FAO Director-General QU Dongyu and UNWTO Secretary-General Zurab Pololikashvili said, “With the right data, we can better control the dispersal of visitor flows, support adequate planning, improve knowledge on visitor patterns, build sustainable products [that are] in line with consumer needs, and create suitable policies that will foster sustainable development and make sure tourism activities benefit local communities”. The UNWTO hopes that the report will enhance understanding of tourism in the mountains and encompass its full economic, social, and environmental impacts.

With sufficient standardised data, this could ensure even more efficient, resilient, and sustainable development of tourism in mountain regions. It’s important to address data gaps, as having data available is important for sustainable tourism development and the wellbeing of local communities.

References

Data Missing in Mountain Tourism – Indian Flash News

Tourism’s potential for mountain ecosystems and communities outlined (awaramusafir.com)

Tourism’s Potential for Mountain Ecosystems and Communities Outlined in New Report (unwto.org)

Understanding and Quantifying Mountain Tourism | World Tourism Organization (e-unwto.org)

Tourism Data Definition & FAQs – Explorium

Understanding and Quantifying Mountain Tourism (fao.org)

Missing Data in Research | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Business and Management

Mountain and Snow Tourism Market Size, Forecast & Trends| FMI (futuremarketinsights.com)

Vulnerable giants: Mountain tourism at a turning point – Foresight (climateforesight.eu)

Cover image by Hasmik Ghazaryan Olson.

Despite the importance of mountains for downstream water supply, there are large gaps in our scientific understanding of how snow and ice meltwater travels through the landscape, specifically which flowpaths meltwater takes below the surface. Plus, existing knowledge is scattered throughout various sub-disciplines of mountain hydrology: glaciology, snow science, hydrogeology, and surface hydrology. That is why we decided to bring together a group of experts in a one-day workshop on this topic – to synthesize knowledge and foster opportunities for future collaborations. As a result, 22 scientists from 13 countries met at BOKU University in Vienna on April 23 for a full day of lively discussions. In this post, we, the organizers, outline our experience and share our tips for other Early Career Scientists (ECS) looking to organize similar workshops. 

Workshop organization: ideas, discussions, funding and advertising

The Vienna cryosphere-groundwater workshop didn’t happen overnight. It required careful preparation and collaboration. Marit and Caroline, hydrologists from Zurich and Canmore who work on glacierized catchments, recognized the need for better understanding of the path taken by glacier meltwater to rivers, particularly underground. To address this knowledge gap, we formed a working group with Lauren, an expert in mountain groundwater, and secured funding from the Mountain Research Initiative for a synthesis workshop. We decided to organize the workshop in Vienna the weekend before EGU, so participants could combine the workshop with the largest European Geoscience conference and only travel once. With the workshop set in motion, we enlisted the help of Franzi, a local snow expert, to facilitate logistics in Vienna.

We promoted the workshop on various platforms such as the MRI website, Twitter and mailing lists (abouthydrology and cryolist) and gave about a month’s time for people to apply.  We ended up with more people interested to join our workshop than available places, and we therefore had to design a selection process in which we wanted to take into account diversity by creating a group of various expertise, career stage, study area and gender. 

From discussions to written output

One of the goals of the workshop was to produce a synthesis paper summarizing the current research landscape and future trajectory needed to fill knowledge gaps between the fields of cryospheric sciences and mountain groundwater hydrology.  We are now in the process of writing this document with the workshop participants. We are taking a divide-and-conquer approach with subgroups working on three themes: (1.) the glacier-groundwater connection, (2.) the snow-groundwater connection, and (3.) reconciling these cryosphere-groundwater interactions across scales. Writing in large groups is always challenging, but we are excited to see what our fantastic group can produce!

Cover image by Franziska Koch.

From July 13 to 20, 2023, I participated in the XXI International Quaternary (INQUA) Congress held at the University of Sapienza in Rome, Italy. With the support from the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) program under the Mountain Research Initiative (MRI) and its partners, this congress themed “Time for change” brought together over 3000 delegates for presentations and keynote talks on Quaternary research, climate change, and environmental science. My experience at the congress, highlighted by my own contributions and interactions, illuminated the path toward a more sustainable future.

One of the highlights was my presentation, “Transdisciplinary Assessment of Vulnerability to Climate Change in Southwest Madagascar.” This interdisciplinary research blended palaeoecology, instrumental and historical records along with local knowledge to evaluate the vulnerability to climate change with a focus on the drought of local communities and ecological systems in this region. I discovered that escalating droughts will impact communities. Changes in vegetation components over the past 2,000 years will also disrupt the region’s ecological integrity. Drought will also increase migration and food insecurity. The local communities possess adaptative capacities enabling them to adjust to changes in the short and long term and could potentially be combined with conservation management. These insights are crucial for sustainable management planning in the region amidst the challenges posed by climate change.

Figure 1: Dr. Razanatsoa presenting during the session on “How can archaeology, palaeoecology, traditional knowledge and more than human approaches contribute towards a more sustainable and culturally informed future” at INQUA. Picture provided by Tsilavo Razafimanantsoa.

Another enlightening experience was the workshop titled “Exploring the Interface between Sustainability and Palaeoecology,” organised by the Planetary Boundaries Working Group of Past Global Changes (PAGES). It highlighted palaeoecology’s role in the Planetary Boundaries literature and outlined group objectives. Participants engaged in a hands-on R data exercise, laying the foundation for using palaeoecological data in the Planetary Boundaries context. The exercise’s code is https://bit.ly/INQUA2023-PBW. This was followed by a case study involving lakes in China, which showcased palaeoecology’s practical planetary boundary application. As a member of the scientific steering committee, our group is actively planning regional and global meta-analyses, propelling us toward a more sustainable and resilient future.

Figure 2: The Planetary Boundaries Working Group, led by Professor Lindsey Gillson, held a workshop at INQUA in Rome this July. Picture provided by Lindsey Gillson.

In summary, the XXI INQUA conference provided a platform to showcase my research and connect with leading, global experts.  As I move forward, I anticipate a collaborative venture with researchers from the University of Bern, Switzerland. This collaboration will involve training on modelling techniques to investigate late Holocene landscape changes in southern Africa, and eventually, responses to climate and land use changes.

Cover image by Julia Solonina.

Amongst the originally planned construction projects were three new ski lifts, restaurants and bars, a tunnel, an asphalted water reservoir, additional artificial snow systems, more than four kilometres of roads and paths, and much more. Despite this plan being rejected in 2022, revised plans have resurfaced. 

In Austria, just 7% of the country’s national territory is still in a natural state and free from any technical infrastructure, but this “megaproject” threatens to reduce it even more. Construction of the ski resort could result in potentially destroying a natural glacier landscape beyond repair and cause a total loss of many habitats. The biodiversity that is under threat includes three glaciers, plus springs, streams and rivers, as well as animals such as the ibex, the snow grouse and black grouse, the bearded vulture, and the golden eagle.

Tourism Should Contribute to the Sustainable Development of Natural Landscapes, Not Destroy Them

From an economic point of view, the expansion of ski resorts might bring positive economic benefits, but would this be good for nature? In the past 50 years alone, a lot of mountain environments have changed significantly in their appearance, and in just a few years’ time, several glaciers might be gone for good. The Alliance for the Soul of the Alps, the WWF, the Austrian Alpine Association (Österreichischer Alpenverein) and Naturefriends Austria (Naturfreunde Österreich) joined forces to raise awareness of the rapid decline in natural landscapes in the Alps, and to demand the protection of the last remaining “Alpine open spaces” from the exploitation by landscape-degrading infrastructure, as well as the implementation of a strategic, sustainable landscape management policy for Alpine open spaces. Even outdoor clothing brand Patagonia released a documentary about the controversial plan, named Vanishing Lines, in German with English subtitles.

The Importance of Mountain Research

There have been many development initiatives to safeguard mountain environments which have succeeded at local scales, but according to Wehrli (2014), “efforts to develop the human, environmental, and economic potential and assets of mountains have remained scattered”. 

Unsustainable, improperly-managed tourism and the expansion of ski resorts can put increasing pressure on mountain resources and the people who live there. Mountain research is more critical now than ever, as it can help us to further understand how tourism in mountain regions could work. It allows policymakers and stakeholders to make much more informed and sustainable decisions in tourism development. Resort operators need to understand that even remote mountainous areas are threatened by human activity and that mountains are very fragile environments, and should continue to be protected. The Ötztal-Pitztal project is a prime example of why resort operators and tourism policymakers need to think perhaps more about putting nature before profit. 

References

‘Erschließungswelle bedroht Ötztaler Alpen’ – Österreichischer Alpenverein on LinkedIn

Alpine Glaciers Under Attack: Facts About The Megaproject Pitztal-Ötztal

Vanishing Lines – Patagonia

Controversial Plans to Link Pitztal & Soelden Cancelled

Erschließungswelle bedroht Ötztaler Alpen – Verbände fordern Ausweitung des Ruhegebiets 

Earth’s Cathedrals: Europe’s Mountains Are Cultural Heritage, Not Just Natural Heritage

Listening to the song of melting glaciers

Why Mountains Matter for Sustainable Development

Mountain Research to Protect Our Future

Cover image by Aron Marinelli.

Contemporary transhumance in the central and northern Andes of Chile starts with pre-Hispanic transhumant practices, carried out with camelid livestock by the Aymara, Colla and Atacameña people, inheritors of the nomadic past of the first human settlements that followed the migratory routes of wild camelids, including guanacos and vicuñas. The knowledge of routes and plants of these cultures was, for lack of a better word, adopted by the Spanish conquistadores, who also had a long tradition of transhumance, incorporating their species and breeds of livestock. Later on, criollos continued with these practices to maintain a tradition and a way of life that lasts to this day.

In this piece, we will soar over three expressions of transhumance found in central, north-central and northern Chile, just to give you a glimpse of the state of this activity in this corner of the world.

Central: Putaendo Valley, coexistence in a mega-drought context

The Central Andes of Chile are part of the Mediterranean ecosystems that cover less than 5% of the Earth’s surface. Pastoralists in this region have developed mobile livestock grazing systems to make the best of the expansive, harsh environment. They keep livestock in the invernadas, lowlands with a more gentle climate, during the winter and spring; then, in summer, they take the animals to the high Andean grasslands, the veranadas, that will offer fresh grass after the melting of the snow, where moisture still allows forage growth.

Over the years, pastoralists have been dedicating more time to secondary rural activities to be less dependent on livestock production, evolving into agropastoralists, who maintain the transhumant scheme and occupation of the mountain. However, several factors pose significant threats to transhumance: urbanization, changes in land use, competition with other rural activities, and especially the mega-drought that since 2010 has affected all the central areas of Chile, including the mountainous regions.

The concept of mega-drought (defined by Garreaud et al., 2017) in central Chile refers to the uninterrupted dry years between 2010 and 2015. The mega-drought began in 2010, with an annual rainfall deficit between 55 and 75% in central Chile, the contiguous Andes cordillera, and even westernmost Argentina. New studies point to the emergence of an upper-ocean warming area (i.e., Southern Blob) as a significant contributor to the mega-drought. Several projections show a decrease in runoff due to climate change in central and southern Chile.

As a result, the productivity of mountainous areas has decreased, leading to significant animal (livestock) losses and contributing to the conflict between pastoralists and wildlife, especially guanaco, causing many pastoralists to abandonment their activity. Other pastoralists look for jobs outside pastoralism to adapt to the harsh times, some becoming agropastoralists.

Nowadays, pursuing coexistence has become an urgent issue in the Central Andes mountain ecosystem, and scientific information is needed to evaluate the baseline scenario of multi-species conflicts in remote and large extension areas. Our NGO (Yastay Foundation) has co-produced territorial information using a transdisciplinary and participatory approach to orient decision-making toward a coexistence scenario between agropastoralists and wildlife in the Aconcagua Valley in Chile’s Andes mountains. We used participatory mapping and explored how the diverging arguments of stakeholders could orient decision-making processes towards ecosystems where multiple species could coexist.

North-central: Elqui river wetlands, or what is left from goat country

Some 400km north of Putaendo, we find ourselves in the Norte Chico of Chile. It’s a semiarid region home to many transverse valleys that go east-west, crossed by a river that gives the valley its name.

The Elqui valley and river have a unique and rich history. La Serena, a coastal city located at the mouth of the river, is the second oldest city in Chile, founded in 1544 by the Spanish invaders, who favoured a site that was close to fresh water and a multiplicity of resources. The valley was inhabited by the Diaguitas, a transhumant indigenous group that lived from the coast to the high Andes and the land that is now called Argentina. Settlers soon made this valley and region the home of many – and massive – herds of goats, mules, and sheep under ever-changing systems of management and domination. Nowadays, the inheritors of these ancestral traditions are the arrieros and crianceros, identity symbols of the agrarian life on the Norte Chico.

The Elqui River, its rangelands and riparian areas and life have suffered immense distress in the last decades, and transhumant families are facing great challenges to keep their lifestyle going. This is the case for DonJulio Ramírez, a criancero from this land, who once roamed the entire north of Chile with his flock, thousands strong. Today, he can barely sustain a few dozen goats on a barren hill, even giving away for free the kids for whom he knows cannot provide a good life.

Don Julio’s case is not unique. All of the crianceros here are restricted to the riparian wetlands for forage, as some high mountain grasslands are no longer reliable enough to be worth the enormous effort to travel there; others simply don’t exist any more, due to a combination of climate change, human-led land degradation, and public policy that fails to address mobility and aims for total sedenterisation.

Even though transhumant families have shown enormous capacity to adapt to working in these reduced areas, they are being pushed to the edge of abandonment by irregular land subdivision, aggregate extraction, mining and industrial agriculture – as we have been able to see firsthand. On the brighter side, all these threats were diagnosed under a recent conservation initiative, which for the first time is taking into consideration the transhumant users of the river wetlands as potential allies.

North: Puna de Atacama, grazing between salt flats, mines and tailings

Collas are, above all things, transhumant people. Since ancient times, they roamed through all the Puna de Atacama, the Andean plateau shared between northern Chile and north-west Argentina, raising cattle and moving people and goods through the altiplano, until the infamous General Pinochet’s dictatorship put an end to these movements in the decades of 1970 and 1980.

Here, veranadas can be located over 4km above sea level. They share space with the great salt flats, in a landscape also occupied with the big mining industries of copper, gold and, more recently, lithium. In many cases, this activity destroys apachetas (sacred stone mounds) and Ayllus, a traditional form of social community from the Andean region. In other cases, it will dry entire vegas and bofedales, both types of wetlands found here, affecting biodiversity and leaving forage sites uninhabitable. As the culture is so strongly transhumant, in most cases it destroys both.

Many Colla families have learned to live with these threats, moving their herds in between the scarce grass left behind the trail of ‘progress’, or even finding employment by mining corporations. Despite this, they know that mining has made their mobility and life more difficult, even excluding them from their own land, bringing Colla people to the brink of disappearance.

Pastoralists and agropastoralists, the arrieros, crianceros, and pastores from Chile are so diverse and live in such complex realities that any attempt to fit them all into a single description seems to fall short. This eclectic body of people has their way of life deeply rooted in relational values with nature. It is common to hear from crianceros from Putaendo that they love the land, or that going to el potrero de arriba (the paddock above, the high Andes) is not (only) about money; there is something else. They seem to see themselves as stewards of the land who value the relationships with their land, so they will work and do what is best for it.

This means that the reduction of mobility has affected the pastoralist system beyond merely the financial or ecological; it has affected the social components of the land. Adaptation measures must address the relational values between pastoralists and their activity (i.e., the land, the livestock, the wildlife, etc). And when relocation, financial compensation, or other adaptive decision-making is planned, this must acknowledge that some elements of the territory are not substitutable for a community.

This article was first published by Pastres and written by Juan Pablo del Valle and Matías Hargreaves, Yastay Foundation. This piece is part of  Greta Semplici’s research project on Latin American pastoralism carried out in collaboration with Pablo Manzano. You can find the original release on the website.

Cover image by Romina BM.